व्याकरण एवं लेखन कौशल
Rules, Formats, Examples & Practice — 30 Marks
Tenses tell us the time of an action. English has 12 tenses formed by combining three times (Past, Present, Future) with four aspects (Simple, Continuous, Perfect, Perfect Continuous).
| Tense | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Present | S + V1/V1s + O | She writes a letter. / He plays cricket daily. |
| Present Continuous | S + is/am/are + V-ing + O | She is writing a letter. / They are playing now. |
| Present Perfect | S + has/have + V3 + O | She has written a letter. / I have finished my work. |
| Present Perfect Continuous | S + has/have + been + V-ing + O | She has been writing for two hours. / They have been playing since morning. |
| Tense | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Past | S + V2 + O | She wrote a letter. / He played cricket yesterday. |
| Past Continuous | S + was/were + V-ing + O | She was writing a letter. / They were playing at 5 PM. |
| Past Perfect | S + had + V3 + O | She had written the letter before he came. / The train had left before we reached. |
| Past Perfect Continuous | S + had + been + V-ing + O | She had been writing for two hours when he arrived. |
| Tense | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Future | S + will/shall + V1 + O | She will write a letter. / I shall go tomorrow. |
| Future Continuous | S + will/shall + be + V-ing + O | She will be writing a letter at 5 PM. / They will be playing tomorrow. |
| Future Perfect | S + will/shall + have + V3 + O | She will have written the letter by then. / I shall have finished by evening. |
| Future Perfect Continuous | S + will/shall + have + been + V-ing | She will have been writing for two hours by 6 PM. |
Tense-related questions often appear as fill in the blanks or error correction. Look at time expressions: yesterday = Past, now/at present = Present, tomorrow/next week = Future. The time expression in the sentence is the biggest clue.
Modals are auxiliary verbs that express ability, permission, possibility, obligation, advice, etc. They are always followed by the base form (V1) of the main verb.
| Modal | Usage / Meaning | Examples |
|---|---|---|
| can | Ability, informal permission | I can speak English. / Can I sit here? |
| could | Past ability, polite request | She could swim at age five. / Could you help me? |
| may | Permission, possibility | May I come in? / It may rain today. |
| might | Less likely possibility | He might come tomorrow. / She might be at home. |
| shall | Future (1st person), suggestion | I shall go tomorrow. / Shall we begin? |
| should | Advice, duty, expectation | You should study hard. / We should respect elders. |
| will | Future, willingness, promise | I will help you. / She will come tomorrow. |
| would | Polite request, past habit, conditional | Would you like some tea? / He would go for walks every evening. |
| must | Strong obligation, certainty | You must obey the rules. / He must be at home now. |
| ought to | Moral obligation, advice | We ought to help the poor. / You ought to apologise. |
| need | Necessity | You need not worry. / Need I come tomorrow? |
| dare | Courage, challenge | He dare not oppose the decision. / How dare you say that! |
Modals are never followed by to (except ought to and used to). They do not change form for person or number — no cans, musts, shoulds.
Fill in the blanks with suitable modals. Read the sentence carefully for context clues: obligation = must/should, permission = may/can, ability = can/could, advice = should/ought to.
In Active Voice, the subject performs the action. In Passive Voice, the subject receives the action.
Active: Subject + Verb + Object
Passive: Object + Helping Verb + V3 + by + Subject
| Tense | Active Voice | Passive Voice |
|---|---|---|
| Simple Present | She writes a letter. | A letter is written by her. |
| Present Continuous | She is writing a letter. | A letter is being written by her. |
| Present Perfect | She has written a letter. | A letter has been written by her. |
| Simple Past | She wrote a letter. | A letter was written by her. |
| Past Continuous | She was writing a letter. | A letter was being written by her. |
| Past Perfect | She had written a letter. | A letter had been written by her. |
| Simple Future | She will write a letter. | A letter will be written by her. |
| Future Perfect | She will have written a letter. | A letter will have been written by her. |
Active: The teacher teaches the students.
Passive: The students are taught by the teacher.
Active: Ram wrote a poem.
Passive: A poem was written by Ram.
Active: She has completed the project.
Passive: The project has been completed by her.
Active: They will announce the results.
Passive: The results will be announced by them.
Active: The children were singing a song.
Passive: A song was being sung by the children.
Active: She can solve this problem.
Passive: This problem can be solved by her.
Active: You must finish the homework.
Passive: The homework must be finished by you.
Active: Open the door.
Passive: Let the door be opened.
Active: Do not touch the wire.
Passive: Let the wire not be touched.
Active: The police had caught the thief.
Passive: The thief had been caught by the police.
Direct Speech quotes the exact words of the speaker. Indirect (Reported) Speech reports what was said without quoting the exact words.
| Direct Speech (Tense) | Indirect Speech (Tense) |
|---|---|
| Simple Present (V1/V1s) | Simple Past (V2) |
| Present Continuous (is/am/are + V-ing) | Past Continuous (was/were + V-ing) |
| Present Perfect (has/have + V3) | Past Perfect (had + V3) |
| Simple Past (V2) | Past Perfect (had + V3) |
| Past Continuous (was/were + V-ing) | Past Perfect Continuous (had been + V-ing) |
| will | would |
| can | could |
| may | might |
| shall | should |
| Direct Speech | Indirect Speech |
|---|---|
| today | that day |
| tomorrow | the next day / the following day |
| yesterday | the previous day / the day before |
| now | then |
| here | there |
| this | that |
| these | those |
| ago | before |
| tonight | that night |
| last week | the previous week |
| next month | the following month |
Direct: He said, "I am going to school."
Indirect: He said that he was going to school.
Direct: She said, "I have finished my homework."
Indirect: She said that she had finished her homework.
Direct: He said to me, "Where do you live?"
Indirect: He asked me where I lived. (Wh-question: use the wh-word as conjunction)
Direct: She said, "Are you coming tomorrow?"
Indirect: She asked if/whether I was coming the next day. (Yes/No question: use if/whether)
Direct: The teacher said, "Open your books."
Indirect: The teacher ordered them to open their books.
Direct: She said, "Please help me."
Indirect: She requested me to help her.
Direct: Mother said, "Don't play in the rain."
Indirect: Mother forbade them to play in the rain. / Mother told them not to play in the rain.
Direct: She said, "What a beautiful painting!"
Indirect: She exclaimed that it was a very beautiful painting.
Direct: He said, "Hurrah! We have won the match!"
Indirect: He exclaimed with joy that they had won the match.
Determiners are words placed before nouns to specify or limit their meaning.
| Type | Words | Usage |
|---|---|---|
| Articles | a, an, the | a / an = indefinite (non-specific); the = definite (specific) |
| Demonstratives | this, that, these, those | Point out specific nouns (near/far, singular/plural) |
| Possessives | my, your, his, her, its, our, their | Show ownership |
| Quantifiers | some, any, much, many, few, little, several, enough, all, no | Indicate quantity or amount |
1. I need some sugar. (Quantifier — uncountable, affirmative)
2. Do you have any questions? (Quantifier — used in questions)
3. These mangoes are sweet. (Demonstrative — near, plural)
4. The Ganga is a holy river. (Article — specific river)
5. He has few friends. (Quantifier — "few" = not many, negative sense)
The verb must agree with its subject in number (singular/plural) and person.
Relative clauses give extra information about a noun using relative pronouns.
| Relative Pronoun | Used For | Example |
|---|---|---|
| who | People (subject) | The boy who won the race is my friend. |
| whom | People (object) | The girl whom I met is a doctor. |
| which | Things / Animals | The book which I read was interesting. |
| that | People / Things (restrictive) | The pen that you gave me is lost. |
| whose | Possession | The man whose car was stolen reported to the police. |
| Type | Condition | Structure | Example |
|---|---|---|---|
| Type 0 | General truth / fact | If + Simple Present, Simple Present | If you heat ice, it melts. |
| Type 1 | Real / Possible (future) | If + Simple Present, will + V1 | If it rains, we will stay at home. |
| Type 2 | Unreal / Unlikely (present) | If + Simple Past, would + V1 | If I were rich, I would travel the world. |
| Type 3 | Impossible (past) | If + Past Perfect, would have + V3 | If she had studied, she would have passed. |
If you mix red and blue, you get purple.
If water reaches 100°C, it boils.
Plants die if they don't get sunlight.
If you study hard, you will pass the exam.
If she comes early, we will go together.
If the weather is fine, we will have a picnic.
If I were the principal, I would change the rules.
If he had a car, he would drive to work.
If I knew her number, I would call her.
If I had woken up early, I would have caught the bus.
If they had practised more, they would have won the match.
If he had saved money, he would have bought a house.
In editing exercises, you are given a passage with one error per line. You must identify the incorrect word and write the correct word. Errors may be related to articles, prepositions, tenses, subject-verb agreement, or spelling.
| Sentence | Error | Correction |
|---|---|---|
| (a) Last week I go to the market. | go | went |
| (b) I buyed some fruits and vegetables. | buyed | bought |
| (c) A shopkeeper was very friendly. | A | The |
| (d) He give me a discount on mangoes. | give | gave |
| Sentence | Error | Correction |
|---|---|---|
| (a) The childrens were playing in the park. | childrens | children |
| (b) They was very happy and excited. | was | were |
| (c) One of the boy fell down from the swing. | boy | boys |
| (d) His mother take him to the hospital. | take | took |
In omission exercises, a word has been left out in each line. You must identify the missing word and write where it should be placed.
Formal letters are written to officials, authorities, editors, etc. for complaints, applications, requests, and enquiries. They follow a strict format.
123, Shanti Nagar Balotra, Rajasthan 15 January 2026 The Principal GSSS Jethantri Samdari, Balotra, Rajasthan Subject: Application for three days' leave due to illness Respected Sir/Madam, Most respectfully, I beg to state that I am a student of Class X-A in your school. I am suffering from high fever and the doctor has advised me complete bed rest for three days. Therefore, I kindly request you to grant me leave for three days from 16 January to 18 January 2026. I assure you that I will complete all the missed classwork and homework after rejoining. I shall be highly obliged if you kindly grant me the leave. Yours faithfully, Ramesh Kumar Class X-A, Roll No. 15
45, Gandhi Road Samdari, Balotra, Rajasthan 20 February 2026 The Municipal Commissioner Municipal Corporation Balotra, Rajasthan Subject: Complaint regarding irregular water supply in Gandhi Road area Respected Sir/Madam, I am writing this letter on behalf of the residents of Gandhi Road, Samdari, to bring to your kind attention the problem of irregular water supply in our locality. For the past two months, we have been receiving water only once in three days, and that too for barely 30 minutes. The water pressure is extremely low, and many families on the upper floors do not get any water at all. Due to this, residents are forced to buy water from private tankers at high prices. The situation becomes worse during the summer months. We humbly request you to look into the matter urgently and restore the regular water supply at the earliest. We hope for your prompt action and shall be grateful for your kind intervention. Yours faithfully, Suresh Meghwal President, Gandhi Road Residents' Association
Informal letters are written to friends, family, and relatives. The tone is friendly and personal.
123, Shanti Nagar Balotra, Rajasthan 10 May 2026 Dear Aman, I hope this letter finds you in good health and high spirits. How are your exam preparations going? I finished my exams last week and now I am enjoying my summer vacation. I am writing to tell you about my exciting vacation plans. My family and I are going to visit Udaipur next week. We plan to see the City Palace, Lake Pichola, and the famous Jag Mandir. After that, we will spend two days in Mount Abu to escape the summer heat. I have heard the Nakki Lake and Dilwara Temples are beautiful. I wish you could join us! It would be so much fun. Do write back and tell me about your vacation plans. Maybe we can meet up during the holidays. Give my regards to uncle and aunty. Your loving friend, Rajesh
Trees are the most valuable gift of nature to mankind. They are essential for maintaining the ecological balance of our planet and sustaining all forms of life on Earth.
Trees provide us with oxygen, the very air we breathe. A single large tree can supply a day's oxygen for up to four people. They absorb harmful carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and help in reducing global warming. Trees also prevent soil erosion, maintain the water cycle by attracting rainfall, and provide shade and shelter to countless species of birds and animals. They give us fruits, timber, medicines, rubber, and many other useful products. In rural India, trees are the backbone of the agricultural economy.
Unfortunately, deforestation is increasing at an alarming rate due to urbanisation, industrialisation, and human greed. According to reports, India loses thousands of hectares of forest cover every year. The consequences are visible — rising temperatures, irregular rainfall, floods, and droughts.
It is our duty to plant more trees and protect existing forests. As the saying goes, "He who plants a tree, plants a hope." Let us pledge to make our Earth greener and healthier for future generations.
"Digital India" is a flagship programme of the Government of India launched on 1 July 2015 by Prime Minister Narendra Modi. Its vision is to transform India into a digitally empowered society and knowledge economy.
The programme focuses on three key areas: creating digital infrastructure, delivering government services digitally, and improving digital literacy. Under this initiative, services like Aadhaar, UPI payments, DigiLocker, and e-Governance portals have reached millions of Indians. The JAM trinity (Jan Dhan-Aadhaar-Mobile) has enabled direct benefit transfers to the bank accounts of the poor, reducing corruption and middlemen. India's UPI system has become a global model for digital payments, processing billions of transactions every month.
In education, Digital India has brought e-learning platforms, smart classrooms, and online resources to students in remote villages. Telemedicine is connecting rural patients with specialist doctors in cities. Farmers are using apps to check weather forecasts, market prices, and government schemes.
However, challenges remain — the digital divide between urban and rural areas, cybersecurity threats, and the need for digital literacy among the elderly. Despite these challenges, Digital India has set the foundation for a modern, connected, and inclusive India.
GSSS JETHANTRI, SAMDARI NOTICE
Date: 15 March 2026 ANNUAL SPORTS DAY CELEBRATION All students are hereby informed that the Annual Sports Day of our school will be held on 22 March 2026 (Saturday) from 9:00 AM to 2:00 PM in the school playground. Events include 100m race, 200m race, long jump, high jump, shot put, relay race, and tug of war. Students who wish to participate must register with their class teacher by 18 March 2026. Parents and guardians are cordially invited to attend. Rajesh Kumar Head Boy
GSSS JETHANTRI, SAMDARI NOTICE
Date: 10 February 2026 LOST — GEOMETRY BOX A blue Camlin geometry box was found in the school library on 9 February 2026. It contains a compass, protractor, divider, set squares, and a pencil. The box has the initials "A.K." written on the top. The owner is requested to collect it from the school office during break time with proper identification. Sunita Sharma Class Monitor, X-B
MESSAGE
Date: 10 February 2026 Time: 5:00 PM Dear Priya, Your friend Neha called at 4:30 PM while you were out for tuition. She said that the group study session planned for tomorrow has been shifted from her house to Ankit's house. She requested you to bring your Science notes. Please reach by 10:00 AM. Ravi
MESSAGE
Date: 18 January 2026 Time: 6:30 PM Dear Papa, Dr. Sharma's clinic called at 6:00 PM to inform that your appointment scheduled for tomorrow (19 January) at 11:00 AM has been rescheduled to 3:00 PM due to the doctor's emergency surgery. Please confirm by calling them back at 9876543210. Ankita
The Importance of Physical Fitness for Students
By Meera Sharma
"A healthy mind lives in a healthy body." This ancient saying holds true even in the modern age. Yet, with the rise of smartphones, online gaming, and social media, physical fitness among students is declining rapidly.
According to a recent WHO report, over 80% of adolescents worldwide do not get enough physical activity. In India, obesity among school-going children has doubled in the last decade. Prolonged screen time leads to poor posture, weak eyesight, lack of concentration, and mental health issues like anxiety and depression.
Physical exercise is not just about building muscles. It improves blood circulation, boosts memory and concentration, reduces stress, and builds confidence. Even 30 minutes of daily exercise — be it running, yoga, cycling, or playing a sport — can make a significant difference. Schools must allocate dedicated time for physical education and encourage participation in sports events.
Students must understand that academic success and physical fitness go hand in hand. Let us put down our phones, step outside, and embrace an active lifestyle. As the saying goes, "Those who do not find time for exercise will have to find time for illness."
Test your grammar knowledge. Click on the option you think is correct.
Hints: Mention the increasing number of stray dogs/cattle, danger to children and elderly, spread of diseases, traffic accidents, request municipal action.
Model Answer:
45, Nehru Colony Balotra, Rajasthan 25 January 2026 The Editor Rajasthan Patrika Jodhpur, Rajasthan Subject: Problem of stray animals in residential areas Respected Sir/Madam, Through the columns of your esteemed newspaper, I wish to draw the attention of the concerned authorities towards the growing menace of stray animals in our locality, Nehru Colony, Balotra. The number of stray dogs and cattle roaming freely in our streets has increased alarmingly in the past few months. These animals pose a serious threat to the safety of children, elderly citizens, and morning walkers. Several incidents of dog bites have been reported recently. Stray cattle often block the roads, causing traffic jams and accidents. Moreover, these animals rummage through garbage, spreading unhygienic conditions and diseases. I request the Municipal Corporation to take immediate steps such as setting up an animal shelter, conducting an animal birth control programme, and ensuring regular removal of garbage to discourage stray animals from residential areas. I hope this letter draws the attention of the authorities for prompt action. Yours faithfully, Kavita Joshi
Hints: Mention the purpose (encourage scientific thinking), proposed date and venue, types of exhibits and projects, assistance needed from school, benefits for students.
Model Answer:
GSSS Jethantri Samdari, Balotra, Rajasthan 5 February 2026 The Principal GSSS Jethantri Samdari, Balotra, Rajasthan Subject: Permission to organise a Science Exhibition Respected Sir/Madam, I, Arjun Meena, Head Boy of the school, on behalf of the Science Club, wish to seek your kind permission to organise a Science Exhibition on the school premises. We propose to hold the exhibition on 20 February 2026 (Thursday) in the school hall from 10:00 AM to 3:00 PM. Students from Classes 8 to 12 will display working models, charts, and projects on topics like renewable energy, water conservation, space exploration, and artificial intelligence. We plan to invite students from neighbouring schools to participate as well. We would need the school hall, a few tables and chairs, an electricity connection for models, and permission to use the school projector. The Science Club members will handle all arrangements under the guidance of our Science teachers. We believe this event will promote scientific curiosity, teamwork, and creative thinking among students. Kindly grant us the necessary permission. Yours faithfully, Arjun Meena Head Boy, GSSS Jethantri
Hints: Express happiness, mention their hard work and dedication, recall watching them practise, wish them success for state level, offer to celebrate.
Model Answer:
123, Shanti Nagar Balotra, Rajasthan 12 March 2026 Dear Vikram, I was thrilled to hear the wonderful news of your team winning the District Level Cricket Tournament! Heartiest congratulations to you and the entire team! I know how hard you have worked for this. I remember those early morning practice sessions and the hours you spent at the nets perfecting your batting and bowling. Your dedication has truly paid off. Scoring a half-century in the final match was simply outstanding! Your parents must be so proud of you. I heard that your team has now qualified for the State Level Tournament next month. I am sure you will make us all proud at that level too. Keep practising and stay focused — I have full faith in your abilities. Let us celebrate your victory this weekend. I will treat you to your favourite pizza at the new restaurant in town! Once again, congratulations and best wishes for the state-level competition. Your loving friend, Rohit
Hints: Include dates, timings, venue, types of books available, discounts, and any special events like author talks.
Model Answer:
GSSS JETHANTRI, SAMDARI NOTICE
Date: 1 March 2026 ANNUAL BOOK FAIR All students are hereby informed that the school is organising an Annual Book Fair from 8 March to 10 March 2026 in the school assembly hall. The fair will feature books from leading publishers on subjects including Science, Mathematics, English Literature, Hindi, General Knowledge, and competitive exam preparation. Storybooks, novels, and comics will also be available. A special 20% discount will be offered to all students. A book reading session with local author Shri Devendra Sharma will be held on 9 March at 11:00 AM. All students and parents are welcome. Priya Kumari School Captain
Hints: Mention the reason for the change, new timings, effective date, and whom to contact for queries.
Model Answer:
GSSS JETHANTRI, SAMDARI NOTICE
Date: 15 April 2026 CHANGE IN SCHOOL BUS TIMINGS All students availing the school bus facility are hereby informed that due to the change in school timings for the summer session, the bus timings will be revised with effect from 1 May 2026. The morning pickup will begin 30 minutes earlier than the current schedule. Students are advised to be at their bus stops at least 5 minutes before the revised time. The updated route-wise timetable has been displayed on the school notice board. For any queries, please contact the school office during working hours. By order of the Principal GSSS Jethantri
Hints: Types of pollution (air, water, soil, noise), causes, effects on health and environment, solutions, role of students.
Model Answer:
Pollution — A Growing Threat
Pollution is one of the most serious challenges facing humanity today. It refers to the contamination of natural resources — air, water, and soil — by harmful substances, making them unfit for use by living beings.
Air pollution caused by vehicle emissions, factory smoke, and burning of fossil fuels has led to respiratory diseases and global warming. Water pollution from industrial waste, sewage, and chemical fertilizers has contaminated rivers, lakes, and groundwater, causing waterborne diseases. Soil pollution through pesticides and plastic waste has degraded the fertility of agricultural land. Noise pollution from traffic, loudspeakers, and construction affects mental health and causes hearing problems.
The effects are devastating — rising temperatures, melting glaciers, extinction of species, and increasing health problems among children and the elderly. India's capital, Delhi, regularly features among the world's most polluted cities.
To combat pollution, we must adopt cleaner fuels, promote public transport, plant trees, recycle waste, and enforce strict anti-pollution laws. As students, we can start by reducing plastic use, saving water, and spreading awareness. The time to act is now — for the sake of our planet and future generations.
Hints: Name the festival, when and why it is celebrated, preparations, how you celebrate, special food, significance, what you enjoy most.
Model Answer:
My Favourite Festival — Diwali
India is a land of festivals, and among all the festivals, Diwali is my favourite. Also known as the "Festival of Lights," Diwali is celebrated in the month of October or November on the Amavasya (new moon night) of the Hindu month of Kartik.
Diwali commemorates the return of Lord Rama to Ayodhya after 14 years of exile and his victory over the demon king Ravana. It symbolises the triumph of light over darkness and good over evil.
The preparations begin weeks in advance. We clean and whitewash our homes, buy new clothes, and decorate the house with colourful rangolis, flowers, and diyas (oil lamps). On the evening of Diwali, we light hundreds of diyas and candles, perform Lakshmi Puja for prosperity, burst crackers, and share sweets with neighbours and relatives. My mother prepares delicious dishes like gulab jamun, kheer, and namkeen.
What I love most about Diwali is the feeling of togetherness — the entire family comes together, and there is joy and warmth everywhere. However, I believe we should celebrate an eco-friendly Diwali by avoiding crackers that cause air and noise pollution.
